Alternative hypotheses

Compare mechanisms

Compare function, sequence, patient language, and treatment leverage. The aim is not to choose a label—it is to identify which hypothesis best explains this person’s pattern.

Ask this

Which pattern better explains the sequence, protective function, and consequences: projection or rumination?

Projection

Projection can protect against shame or conflict but may create suspicion, blame, and interpersonal escalation.

DefenceInterpersonalAffect+1

Rumination

Rumination may feel like problem-solving but often maintains low mood, shame, threat, and cognitive inflexibility.

CognitionAffectBehaviour

Definition

AA defence in which unacceptable feelings, impulses, or self-states are attributed to another person.

BRepetitive, passive, negatively toned thinking about distress, causes, meanings, or consequences.

Core process

AAn unwanted internal state is experienced as located in the other, reducing self-conflict but distorting interpersonal appraisal.

BAttention becomes repeatedly captured by unresolved negative meanings without moving into effective action or new learning.

Look for

AHigh certainty about others motives · Accusations matching disowned affect

BLong repetitive analysis · Difficulty shifting attention

Patient language

A“They hate me”

B“I keep going over it”

Maintaining cycle

ADisowned affect -> attribution to other -> defensive interaction -> apparent confirmation

BNegative event -> repetitive analysis -> mood worsens -> more negative material becomes salient

Treatment leverage

ABuild capacity to notice disowned feeling states without shame escalation.

BMove from repetitive analysis to values-based action or specific problem-solving.

Check before using

AThere is strong evidence that the other person is acting in the described way.

BThe person is doing concrete planning that leads to action.

Formulation language

Projection may protect against owning painful feelings, but it can make relationships feel more hostile and confirming.

Open full guide

Formulation language

Rumination appears to keep the patient caught in repeated negative meaning-making, worsening mood and reducing behavioural movement.

Open full guide

Browse the map Use both hypotheses

Alternative hypotheses

Compare mechanisms

Compare function, sequence, patient language, and treatment leverage. The aim is not to choose a label—it is to identify which hypothesis best explains this person’s pattern.

Ask this

Which pattern better explains the sequence, protective function, and consequences: projection or rumination?

Projection

Projection can protect against shame or conflict but may create suspicion, blame, and interpersonal escalation.

DefenceInterpersonalAffect+1

Rumination

Rumination may feel like problem-solving but often maintains low mood, shame, threat, and cognitive inflexibility.

CognitionAffectBehaviour

Definition

AA defence in which unacceptable feelings, impulses, or self-states are attributed to another person.

BRepetitive, passive, negatively toned thinking about distress, causes, meanings, or consequences.

Core process

AAn unwanted internal state is experienced as located in the other, reducing self-conflict but distorting interpersonal appraisal.

BAttention becomes repeatedly captured by unresolved negative meanings without moving into effective action or new learning.

Look for

AHigh certainty about others motives · Accusations matching disowned affect

BLong repetitive analysis · Difficulty shifting attention

Patient language

A“They hate me”

B“I keep going over it”

Maintaining cycle

ADisowned affect -> attribution to other -> defensive interaction -> apparent confirmation

BNegative event -> repetitive analysis -> mood worsens -> more negative material becomes salient

Treatment leverage

ABuild capacity to notice disowned feeling states without shame escalation.

BMove from repetitive analysis to values-based action or specific problem-solving.

Check before using

AThere is strong evidence that the other person is acting in the described way.

BThe person is doing concrete planning that leads to action.

Formulation language

Projection may protect against owning painful feelings, but it can make relationships feel more hostile and confirming.

Open full guide

Formulation language

Rumination appears to keep the patient caught in repeated negative meaning-making, worsening mood and reducing behavioural movement.

Open full guide

Browse the map Use both hypotheses